Scale Creation

Simple indices are the variables that are constructed through the arithmetic transformation or recoding of one or more items in exactly the same way across assessments.

New and trend scale indices are the variables constructed through the scaling of multiple items. Unless otherwise indicated, such indices have been scaled using a two-parameter item response model (a generalized partial credit model was used in the case of items with more than two categories) and the index values correspond to Warm likelihood estimates (WLE).

Scale indices were constructed through the scaling of items. Typically, scale scores for these indices were estimates of latent traits derived through Item Response Theory (IRT) scaling of dichotomous or Likert-type items.

Complex composite indices are based on a combination of two or more indices. There was only one complex composite index derived from the Student Questionnaire: the index of economic, social and cultural status (ESCS).

PISA 2022 used a new within-construct matrix sampling design for some indices. Every student was administered a random subset of five items for each construct. This design ensured that each item was administered to approximately the same number of students in each country/economy as well as the overall sample. This within-construct matrix design was only used for some of the IRT-based scales in the Student Questionnaire.

Only scale indices are listed below.

List of Background Scales

Student questionnaire scales

• Index of economic, social and cultural status (ESCS)
• Home possessions
• ICT resources
• Information seeking regarding future career
• Being bullied
• Feeling safe
• Mathematics teacher support
• Quality of student-teacher relationships
• School safety risks
• Sense of belonging
• Growth mindset
• Mathematics anxiety
• Mathematics self-efficacy: Formal and applied mathematics
• Mathematics self-efficacy: Mathematical reasoning and 21st century mathematics
• Proactive mathematics study behaviour
• Subjective familiarity with mathematics concepts
• Assertiveness
• Cooperation
• Curiosity
• Emotional control
• Empathy
• Perseverance
• Stress resistance
• Exposure to formal and applied mathematics tasks
• Exposure to mathematical reasoning and 21st century mathematics topics
• Cognitive activation in mathematics: Foster reasoning
• Cognitive activation in mathematics: Encourage mathematical thinking
• Disciplinary climate in mathematics
• Family support
• Creative peers and family environment
• Creative school and class environment
• Creative thinking self-efficacy
• Creativity and openness to intellect
• Imagination and adventurousness
• Openness to art and reflection
• Participation in creative activities at school
• Participation in creative activities outside of school
• Family support for self-directed learning
• Feelings about learning at home
• Problems with self-directed learning
• Self-directed learning self-efficacy
• School actions to sustain learning
• Types of learning resources used while school was closed

School questionnaire scales

• Negative school climate
• School diversity and multi-cultural views
• Student-related factors affecting school climate
• Teacher-related factors affecting school climate
• Extra-curricular activities offered
• Shortage of educational material
• Shortage of educational staff
• Educational leadership
• Instructional leadership
• School autonomy
• Teacher participation
• Digital device policies at school
• Mathematics teacher training
• Feedback to teachers
• Use of standardized tests
• Use of teacher-developed tests
• School encouragement of parent or guardian involvement
• Beliefs about creativity
• Creative school activities offered
• Creative school environment
• Openness culture/climate
• Problems with schools’ capacity to provide remote instruction 
• School preparation for remote instruction - Before pandemic
• School preparation for remote instruction - In response to pandemic 
• Preparedness for digital learning

Optional ICT familiarity questionnaire scales

• ICT availability at school
• ICT availability outside school
• Quality of access to ICT
• Subject-related ICT use during lessons
• Use of ICT in enquiry-based learning activities
• Support or feedback via ICT
• Use of ICT for school activities outside of the classroom
• Frequency of ICT activity - Weekday
• Frequency of ICT activity - Weekend
• Views of regulated ICT use in school
• Students’ practices regarding online information
• Self-efficacy in digital competencies

Optional well-being questionnaire scales

• Body image
• Social connection to parents
• Students' life satisfaction across domains
• Psychosomatic symptoms
• Social connections: Ease of communication about worries and concerns
• Experienced well-being - Previous day

Optional financial literacy questionnaire scales

• Financial education in school lessons
• Financial education in school lessons - Multiple subjects
• Parental involvement in matters of financial literacy
• Access to money and financial products - Sources of money
• Confidence about financial matters
• Confidence about financial matters using digital devices
• Access to money and financial products - Financial activities
• Attitudes towards and confidence about financial matters
• Friends’ influence on financial matters

Optional parent questionnaire scales

• Current parental/guardian support
• Parent attitudes toward mathematics
• Mathematics career
• Parental involvement
• School quality
• School policies for parental involvement
• Parents' attitudes towards immigrants
• Creative home environment
• Participation in creative activities outside of school
• Creativity and openness to intellect
• Openness to creativity: Other’s report

Optional teacher questionnaire scales

• Proportion of professional development
• Exchange and co-ordination for teaching
• Teaching ICT awareness
• Teachers’ use of specific ICT applications
• Disciplinary climate in mathematics
• Need for professional development
• Teachers' attitudes toward equal rights for immigrants
• Satisfaction with current job environment
• Satisfaction with teaching profession
• Teacher’s self-efficacy in classroom management
• Teacher’s self-efficacy in maintaining positive relations with students
• Teacher’s self-efficacy in instructional settings
• Teacher use of ICT
• Emphasis on ICT competencies
• Teaching of mathematical reasoning and 21st century mathematics topics
• Encouraging mathematical thinking
• Fostering reasoning
• Goals and views about teaching mathematics
• Adaptation of instruction
• Feedback provided by the teachers
• Openness to creativity
• Creative values
• Teachers' use of creative pedagogies
• Teachers' capacity to concentrate at work
• Teachers' affect
• Teachers' feeling of trust
• Teachers' work overload
• Teachers' work autonomy
• School leadership
• Occupational stress
• Sources of stress
• Negative physical symptoms